Every nation has dates that transcend the calendar and become symbols of national identity. In Türkiye, few dates carry as much historical weight as Aug. 26, as it commemorates not one but two pivotal events in Turkish history.

First, it marks the Battle of Manzikert (Malazgirt) in 1071, a victory that marked the beginning of Turkish entry into Anatolia and initiated a process through which the region would eventually become the Turkish homeland. Second, it marks the beginning of the Great Offensive in 1922, the decisive moment of the Turkish War of Independence and the consolidation of the Turkish presence in Anatolia. Given the significance of Aug. 26 in Turkish history, today, I want to examine the two events associated with this date.

Battle of Manzikert, 1071

The Seljuks had already begun penetrating Anatolia before the Battle of Manzikert. Seljuk forces had even advanced into central Anatolia, yet these incursions produced no lasting effects.

Determined to eliminate the Seljuk threat once and for all, Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes assembled a massive army, which contemporary sources claimed numbered as many as 200,000 men. In 1071, he marched eastward to confront the forces of Sultan Alp Arslan, setting the stage for one of the most decisive battles in the history of the Near East.

Sultan Alp Arslan, on the other hand, was inclined to maintain peace with the Byzantine Empire. He was more interested in achieving the goal of his uncle, Tughril Beg, by uniting the divided Islamic world under a single banner. However, the advance of Romanos IV and the growing Byzantine threat forced the Seljuk sultan to postpone his aims in the south and turn his attention toward Anatolia.

For Alp Arslan, the unity of the Islamic world was far more important than a war with Byzantium. Nevertheless, the overconfident Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes rejected the sultan’s peace overtures. According to later accounts, he arrogantly boasted that he would advance deep into Seljuk territory and capture the Seljuk capital.

Turkification of Anatolia

According to contemporary and later accounts, Alp Arslan's army numbered around 50,000 men and was outnumbered by the Byzantine army. For the Seljuks, a direct assault on the Byzantine army would have been suicidal. Therefore, the Seljuk cavalry employed a feigned retreat, launching attacks against the Byzantine center before deliberately withdrawing. Believing that victory was already within their grasp, the Byzantine high command ordered a general pursuit. This was precisely the outcome Alp Arslan had anticipated. Once the Byzantine forces had advanced beyond a certain point and lost their cohesion, the Seljuk cavalry turned against them, attacking from multiple directions and gradually encircling the imperial army. By then, it was too late for the Byzantines to recover the initiative.

Another factor that contributed to the Byzantine defeat was that the army was composed not only of Byzantine Greeks but also of various foreign contingents, including Turkic Pecheneg and Oghuz mercenaries. During the course of the battle, a number of these Turkic auxiliaries reportedly deserted the Byzantine ranks and joined their Seljuk kinsmen, thereby weakening the imperial army.

As the situation deteriorated, Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes ordered a retreat, but the withdrawal quickly degenerated into a disorderly rout. Amid the confusion, the emperor himself was captured by Seljuk forces, marking a dramatic conclusion to the battle.

Alp Arslan treated Romanos IV Diogenes with considerable respect and concluded a peace treaty with the defeated emperor. Once again, the Seljuk sultan sought to secure his western frontier so that he could redirect his attention toward the Shiite Fatimid Caliphate rising in Egypt and his broader objective of achieving unity within the Islamic world.

However, events took a different course. Shortly after his release, Romanos IV was overthrown by his political opponents in Istanbul, blinded, and eventually exiled. As a result, the treaty concluded at Manzikert became effectively void.

The collapse of Romanos IV's authority, coupled with the weakening of Byzantine military power in Anatolia, created favorable conditions for further Turkish expansion. In the years that followed, numerous Turkmen groups crossed into Anatolia and established permanent settlements throughout the region. This process gradually transformed the demographic and political character of Anatolia. By the 12th century, many Western sources had begun referring to large parts of the peninsula as "Turcomania" or "Turkmenia," reflecting the growing Turkish presence in the region.

Great Offensive, 1922

The Ottoman Empire emerged from World War I as one of the defeated powers. Following the signing of the Armistice of Mudros on Oct. 30, 1918, Ottoman territories began to be occupied by the Allied powers, including the United Kingdom, France and Italy. These occupations were largely justified through the vague provisions of Article 7 of the armistice, which granted the Allies the right to occupy any strategic point deemed necessary for their security.

However, local resistance organizations were quickly formed throughout Anatolia in response to the Allied occupations. The illegal Greek landing and subsequent occupation of Izmir in May 1919 served only to intensify Turkish resentment and strengthen the emerging national resistance movement. For many Turks, the occupation of Izmir became a powerful symbol of the dismemberment of their homeland and reinforced the determination to resist foreign intervention.

After the Battles of Kütahya and Eskişehir ended in a Greek victory, Turkish forces had to withdraw, leaving the road to Ankara open to the advancing Greek army.

Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, the future founder of the Turkish republic, the Greek advance was halted at the Battle of Sakarya. Although the battle effectively neutralized the offensive capabilities of the Greek army, their forces still controlled a substantial portion of Western Anatolia, including Izmir. If the Turkish National Struggle was to achieve its objectives, a decisive offensive would be necessary.

Yet this was a formidable undertaking. Greek forces had heavily fortified their positions around Afyon, making any breakthrough exceedingly difficult. Moreover, for nearly two centuries, most major Ottoman and Turkish military successes had been defensive rather than offensive. The planned offensive represented a considerable gamble for the National Movement, whose military resources remained limited. At the same time, the Greek army was deeply entrenched, and the element of surprise offered the best hope of achieving a breakthrough.

Fortunately for the Turkish forces, extensive preparations were carried out without alerting the Greeks to the impending attack. The date chosen for the offensive was also highly symbolic. The operation was deliberately scheduled to begin on Aug. 26, the anniversary of the Battle of Manzikert, thereby linking the National Struggle with one of the most celebrated victories in Turkish history.

Expelling enemy from Anatolia

At dawn on Aug. 26, 1922, the Turkish offensive commenced with a massive artillery bombardment of Greek positions. More than 120 guns opened fire simultaneously, pounding the Greek defenses and marking the beginning of the Great Offensive. It must have been a glorious sight for those who witnessed it, as the thunder of artillery announced the start of the operation that would determine the fate of the Turkish National Struggle.

The Greeks were caught by surprise, and the initial Turkish attacks disrupted their ability to respond effectively. When they attempted to regain the initiative, Turkish forces pressed their advantage. Among the most remarkable episodes of the campaign was the cavalry operation conducted by Fahreddin Altay Pasha's cavalry corps. Often described as one of the greatest cavalry charges in military history and possibly the last great cavalry charge of the 20th century, it penetrated deep behind Greek lines, severed communications and contributed significantly to the encirclement of the Greek army.

In a striking parallel, the Greek forces found themselves surrounded much as the Byzantine army had been at Manzikert centuries earlier. By Aug. 30, following the decisive Battle of Dumlupınar, the Greek army was in full retreat, bringing the military phase of the conflict to a successful conclusion for the Turkish National Movement.

Date of conquest, protection

The significance of Aug. 26 in Turkish history lies not merely in the coincidence of two military victories occurring on the same date, but in the symbolic connection between them.

The Battle of Manzikert in 1071 marked the beginning of the Turkish presence in Anatolia and initiated a process that would eventually transform the region into the Turkish homeland. More than eight centuries later, the Great Offensive of 1922 ensured that this homeland would remain in Turkish hands. In this sense, Manzikert opened the gates of Anatolia, while the Great Offensive secured them.

Although separated by centuries and fought under vastly different political and military circumstances, both campaigns shared important similarities. In each case, Turkish commanders faced numerically superior opponents, relied on strategic ingenuity and achieved decisive victories that altered the course of history. The deliberate choice of Aug. 26 as the starting date of the Great Offensive further demonstrated the awareness of this historical continuity among the leaders of the Turkish National Movement.

For these reasons, Aug. 26 occupies a unique place in Turkish historical memory. It symbolizes both the arrival of the Turks in Anatolia and their determination to preserve it. Few dates in world history can claim to represent so clearly both the foundation of a homeland and its successful defense.