When one examines Ottoman history, one encounters many illustrious sultans. From Osman Ghazi, the founder of a small principality that would eventually grow into a world empire, to Süleyman the Magnificent, whose achievements left a profound impression on Europe, and Abdülhamid II, who managed to prolong the empire’s existence in the face of mounting internal and external challenges, the Ottoman dynasty produced numerous remarkable rulers.

Yet, if you ask me, among all these rulers, Mehmed II occupies a unique place. Few sovereigns in world history transformed both their state and their age as profoundly as he did. Better known as Mehmed the Conqueror, he not only conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, but also laid the foundations of the classical Ottoman state that would dominate three continents for centuries. The reasons for this admiration deserve to be explained.

Renaissance man

Mehmed II was born in Edirne in 1432. His father, Murad II, an illustrious ruler, initially expected his beloved elder son, şehzade Alaeddin Ali, to succeed him.

At the age of 11, Mehmed was sent to Manisa, a traditional training ground for Ottoman princes. There, he received an excellent education under some of the most distinguished scholars of his time. He was also exposed to the ideas of Renaissance humanism, which fostered his lasting interest in classical antiquity and broadened his intellectual horizons beyond the Ottoman world.

His studies ranged widely. He read classical histories, learned about Alexander the Great and acquainted himself with European dynastic traditions. Such breadth of learning was unusual for a 15th-century ruler and helped shape the ambitious and intellectually curious sovereign who would later conquer Constantinople.

As sultan, Mehmed continued to cultivate this intellectual environment. He patronized scholars, welcomed Greek intellectuals to his court and encouraged the translation of classical works into Turkish. Through these efforts, the cultural and historical legacy of the ancient world became increasingly accessible to the Ottoman elite.

Mehmed himself amassed an enormous library, reflecting his remarkable intellectual curiosity. His fascination with the classical world and Renaissance culture was perhaps most famously expressed in his commissioning of a portrait from Venetian artist Gentile Bellini, one of the most celebrated Renaissance artists of his time. The resulting portrait is one of the most striking symbols of Mehmed’s unique character: an Ottoman sultan who could appreciate the intellectual traditions of both the Islamic world and Renaissance Europe.

Islamic ruler

However, Mehmed’s education was not limited to the classical traditions of the ancient and Western worlds. He also received a thorough grounding in Islamic learning under some of the most respected scholars of his age. Equally important was the influence of the renowned Sufi master Akşemseddin, who is traditionally remembered for encouraging the young sultan during the siege of Constantinople and strengthening his resolve to continue the campaign. As a result, Mehmed’s intellectual formation combined the scholarly and spiritual traditions of the Islamic world with a deep appreciation of classical antiquity.

It is also worth noting that one of the principal motivations behind Mehmed II’s determination to capture Constantinople was the desire to fulfill a famous prophecy attributed to the Prophet Muhammad. According to a well-known hadith, the prophet declared: "Constantinople shall surely be conquered. What a wonderful commander will its commander be, and what wonderful soldiers will those soldiers be.” For centuries, Muslim rulers had sought to fulfill this prophecy and claim the honor of being the ones destined to realize it. Mehmed was no exception. The conquest of Constantinople therefore represented not only a strategic and political objective, but also a deeply significant religious one.

Likewise, Mehmed’s expansionist policies were shaped in part by the ideal of extending the rule and influence of Islam. Like many rulers of his age, he viewed military conquest not merely as a means of increasing his power and prestige, but also as a way of advancing a cause that he regarded as both legitimate and divinely sanctioned.

Mehmed also played a crucial role in shaping and organizing the classical structure of the Ottoman state. Islamic law, or Sharia, formed an important foundation of this system, while Mehmed introduced and consolidated institutions that would define the Ottoman political and administrative order for centuries. His reforms and organization provided the foundations of the classical Ottoman state, a structure that remained largely intact until the sweeping reforms of Sultan Mahmud II in the early 19th century.

Roman caesar, avenger of Troy

After the conquest of Constantinople, Mehmed adopted the title "Caesar of Rome” (Kayser-i Rum), signaling his claim as the legitimate successor to the Roman emperors. This was more than an honorary title. Deeply versed in classical history, Mehmed presented himself as the ruler of a universal empire, thereby challenging the Holy Roman Empire’s claim to embody the Roman imperial tradition.

According to the widely recognized eschatological "Four Kingdoms” tradition, the Roman Empire was regarded as the final of the four great earthly kingdoms. As the great Romanian historian Nicolae Iorga famously argued in the early 20th century, the Roman Empire did not simply disappear with the conquest of Constantinople; rather, in a sense, it was transformed into the Ottoman Empire.

Whether one accepts Iorga’s interpretation in its entirety or not, Mehmed’s own actions clearly demonstrate that he regarded himself as more than the conqueror of a Byzantine capital. He sought to inherit the political and imperial legacy of Rome.

This ambition can also be seen in Mehmed’s fascination with Troy. As historian Erhan Afyoncu has pointed out, when Mehmed visited the Strait of Çanakkale, he visited the ruins of ancient Troy and reportedly searched for the tomb of Hector, the legendary Trojan hero.

According to the 15th-century Greek historian Critoboulos, upon finding it, Mehmed declared that Troy had finally been avenged. The story is particularly striking because the Romans themselves were traditionally believed to have descended from the Trojan refugees who escaped the destruction of Troy. In Mehmed’s imagination, therefore, the conquest of Constantinople may have carried a significance that reached far beyond the Byzantine Empire: it connected the Ottoman sultan with the ancient world of Troy, Rome and the universal empire of antiquity.

True intellectual

Mehmed II was therefore much more than the conqueror of Constantinople. He was a ruler who stood at the crossroads of several great intellectual and political traditions. He was educated in the Islamic sciences, fascinated by the classical world, surrounded himself with Greek and Italian intellectuals, collected ancient works and brought Renaissance art into his court. At the same time, he was a deeply religious Muslim ruler who saw the conquest of Constantinople as both a political necessity and the fulfillment of a prophecy attributed to the Prophet Muhammad.

Yet perhaps what makes Mehmed truly remarkable is that he did not see these traditions as contradictory. For him, the heritage of Greece and Rome, the legacy of Islam and the ambitions of the Ottoman dynasty could be brought together under a single imperial vision. He conquered Constantinople, but he did not simply destroy the Roman world that preceded him. He sought to inherit it. By calling himself Caesar, by collecting the works of classical authors, by engaging with Greek intellectuals and even by associating himself with the ancient story of Troy, Mehmed presented himself as the heir to a much older imperial tradition.

This is perhaps why Mehmed II occupies such a unique place in Ottoman history. Osman Ghazi founded the dynasty; Süleyman the Magnificent brought the empire to the height of its power; and Abdülhamid II struggled to preserve it in an age of crisis. Mehmed, however, did something different: he transformed the Ottoman state into an empire with a universal ambition and gave it an intellectual and political identity that would endure for centuries.

For me, this is what makes Mehmed the Conqueror so fascinating. He was at once an Ottoman sultan, a Muslim ruler, a patron of Renaissance culture, a student of classical antiquity and, in his own eyes, a Roman caesar. Few rulers in history embodied so many different worlds within a single person. Mehmed II did not merely conquer a city; he claimed its past, reshaped its present and attempted to make himself the architect of its future. In doing so, he became not only the conqueror of Constantinople, but one of the most extraordinary figures of the 15th century.