From a cultural heritage to a global commodity, coffee carries a labor-intensive and meticulous journey from farm to cup.
For millions of people worldwide, the day begins with a cup of coffee, which is the final stop of a demanding process that spans continents and generations.
From Brazil to Ethiopia, Colombia to Vietnam, production is more than just agriculture; it is also a cultural force, shaping traditions and serving as a universal language of social life.
Seedlings nurtured in nurseries and planted in fertile soil eventually make their way through roasting workshops and cafes, preserving a legacy built on patience, skill and dedication. Among the most common varieties are Arabica, Robusta, Liberica and Excelsa.
Estela Candido Cotes, communications officer at the International Coffee Organization (ICO), told Anadolu Agency (AA) that coffee’s transformation into a global commodity involves several stages – cultivation, harvesting, wet or dry processing, drying, grinding, preparation for export and shipping.
While broadly similar across producing countries, she said methods vary significantly depending on geography, climate, infrastructure and technology.
The journey begins with seedlings planted in shaded nurseries. Watered frequently and shielded from direct sunlight, they are usually transferred to soil during rainy seasons to retain moisture. Coffee trees may take three to four years to yield fruit.
When ripe, the cherries turn red or purplish, signaling harvest time. The main harvest occurs once a year, though regions like Colombia can manage two harvests thanks to favorable conditions.
In most countries, coffee is hand-picked – a labor-intensive practice – but in Brazil, where vast flat plantations dominate, large farms often use mechanical harvesters.
Harvesting is done either by stripping entire branches or by selective picking, the latter favored for Arabica beans since only fully ripe cherries are gathered.
The way cherries are processed and prepared for roasting shapes the coffee’s aroma. Depending on local traditions, three main methods are used: dry, wet and honey processing.
The dry method, one of the oldest, involves sun-drying whole cherries before removing the husks, producing fruity flavors, though with variability in taste. The wet method washes off outer layers, leaving only beans to dry, resulting in a cleaner, floral profile. The honey process allows part of the sugary layer to remain, yielding caramel-like sweetness.
Roasting, a defining step for flavor, is largely a matter of preference. Beans are commonly roasted light, medium or dark.
Light roasts preserve the bean’s original aroma with more acidity, while medium roasts – popular in the United States – offer a balanced taste. Dark roasts, including Italian and French styles, feature glossy black beans with lower acidity but stronger flavor. Roasting also affects caffeine content, with lighter roasts generally retaining more.
Packages often carry more specific labels such as “city roast,” “Vienna roast” or “cinnamon roast.”
Arabica and Robusta are the most commercially significant varieties, Cotes said. Arabica, grown at higher altitudes, accounts for about 57% of global production. Robusta, more resilient to disease, has a harsher taste. Liberica and Excelsa remain niche varieties cultivated mostly in Southeast Asia.
Brazil leads the world in both production and exports, followed by Vietnam, Colombia and Indonesia. The United States is the largest consumer by volume, while Scandinavian countries top per capita consumption.
“Brazil stands out as both a major producer and one of the largest consumer markets,” Cotes noted.
Although Türkiye does not grow coffee due to its climate, Cotes said its long-standing Turkish coffee tradition gives it an important cultural place in the coffee world. Consumption there rose from about 1.11 million bags in 2015-2016 to 2.16 million in 2023-2024, she added.
Cotes emphasized that coffee is not only an “economic commodity” but also a “cultural cornerstone across societies.” It supports the livelihoods of more than 25 million families worldwide, while younger generations increasingly demand traceability, sustainability and ethical practices.
Climate change, she warned, continues to threaten traditional growing regions. “Climate-resilient crops and regenerative farming will be essential,” she said.
