The return of the bones of 63 Khoisan people, held between 1868 and 1924 for race-based scientific research, to their native South Africa has reignited discussion over colonialism’s “racist” and “genocidal” practices.
Considered Africa’s oldest Indigenous people, the Khoisan today primarily live in the Kalahari Basin region, as well as in South Africa, Botswana and Namibia.
Living as hunter-gatherers and pastoralists since prehistoric times, the Khoisan lost much of their land and traditional way of life after Europeans began settling the region in the mid-17th century. They became targets of colonial violence and racist policies.
The human remains, exhumed by Europeans and taken to the University of Glasgow in Scotland for race-based scientific study - where they were displayed as “scientific objects” for more than a century - were returned to South Africa last week. A burial ceremony for the remains has reignited calls for restorative justice, recognition of Indigenous peoples and the assertion of cultural identity.
Emeritus professor Nigel Penn of the University of Cape Town’s Department of Historical Studies, known for his research on Khoisan history, told Anadolu Agency (AA) that the people were dispossessed, subjected to violence and made targets of racist scientific research.
Penn emphasized that the Khoisan - comprising hunter-gatherer San communities and pastoralist Khoikhoi groups - are among the continent’s earliest inhabitants. “From a genetic standpoint, they are considered not just one of Africa’s oldest human populations, but possibly the oldest in the world,” he said.
He noted that after the Dutch arrived at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652, they exploited Khoisan labor, seized their livestock and took their land. Though not officially enslaved, they often lived under quasi-slavery systems.
The San, who did not practice pastoralism, were deemed an obstacle to agricultural expansion and regarded as less valuable by settlers. As a result, they frequently clashed with European colonists and their resistance was often violently suppressed.
Colonial forces formed units called “commandos” to crush opposition, typically killing men and using women and children as laborers. “In some periods and regions, the intensity of the violence reached levels that could be described as ‘genocide,’” Penn said. He added that after quelling resistance, settlers sought to subjugate rather than eliminate the Indigenous population.
Penn said Europeans immediately defined the Khoisan as “the most primitive humans,” positioning them as the opposite of Europeans. Many Europeans believed the center of civilization was Jerusalem and the Holy Land; societies farther from this center were considered increasingly “primitive.”
Khoisan languages, customs, and beliefs were misinterpreted. “From the Enlightenment onward, through the 19th and 20th centuries, the Khoisan were placed at the lowest rung of the so-called ‘chain of being.’ European scientists saw them as a ‘missing link’ between humans and animals,” Penn explained.
This perception justified removing human remains to Europe for so-called scientific study. Many Khoisan remains still exist in museums and research institutions worldwide and in the past, numerous medical schools maintained collections of Khoisan skulls.
Compared with the thousands of Khoisan remains still in Europe, the return of 63 individuals to South Africa is “a drop in the ocean,” Penn said. Nevertheless, he called the repatriation an important first step toward restorative justice, even if its scope remains limited.
Today, Khoisan communities are reclaiming their identities and heritage, with the distinctions between San and Khoi identities increasingly emphasized. Efforts to recognize the Khoisan as “first peoples” have created tensions with the government, as such recognition carries political, land and economic implications.
Penn noted that the official burial of the 63 remains on March 23, attended by President Cyril Ramaphosa, was symbolically significant. He emphasized that restorative justice depends less on returning the past than on policies that support the preservation of Khoisan identity and language.
Traditional lifestyles are no longer sustainable under modern conditions, Penn said, with communities now largely dependent on modern systems and government support.
South African Khoisan Matios described the treatment of ancestors as “morally unacceptable,” saying Europeans targeted the Khoisan, resulting in widespread violence.
“This was a genocide, and on a massive scale. It’s a hidden history. It’s not openly discussed. What is taught publicly, even in school curricula, is very limited,” Matios said.
He expressed distress over the removal of ancestral remains to Europe, noting that the communities’ distinct ways of life and adaptation to nature drew the interest of so-called scientists, leading to the use of human remains in research.
In recent years, Khoisan communities have become more aware of their history. “These stories are resurfacing. People, especially the younger generation, are asking questions: What happened? Why did it happen? Why were these remains taken?” Matios said.
